Residential School Denialism

Words as Weapons: Understanding the Rhetorical Tactics of Residential School Denialism

Language is not merely a tool for communication; it is the vessel through which knowledge systems, worldviews, and ways of being are preserved and transmitted. As Michelle Good highlights, “Our entire epistemology is wrapped up in our languages, and that’s why those languages were targeted in residential schools, and that’s why children were being brutally punished” (Michelle Good, 2024, November 14, First Nations House of Learning Event). The systematic suppression of Indigenous languages in residential schools was not incidental but a deliberate attack on Indigenous ways of knowing, severing generations from their cultural and intellectual traditions.

In the context of residential school denialism, language plays a crucial role in shaping public discourse and historical memory. Denialist rhetoric often employs linguistic strategies to delegitimize Indigenous knowledge systems, reinforce colonial narratives, and obscure the genocidal intent of these institutions. By framing Indigenous epistemologies as inferior or unreliable, denialist discourse works to sustain settler innocence and maintain the status quo. Understanding the epistemic violence enacted through language—both in historical policies and in contemporary denialist rhetoric—is essential for dismantling these narratives and advocating for truth and reconciliation. 

 

Research Scope

Following an extensive engagement with the literature relating to Residential School Denialism in Canada, the researchers immersed themselves in a variety of online resources to explore the topic in depth. The researchers, a PhD candidate in the Faculty of Education, and an Engagement & Learning Librarian, both at the University of Victoria, come to this research from a position of great concern for the growing harm that is caused by this attack on the basic truths of shared history, and the epistemic injustice of related misinformation and misinterpretation (active or otherwise) within this “post-truth” moment.

We began our research by carefully examining scholarly articles, public websites, videos, news media, and social media content, engaging in running discussions and conversations to deepen our understanding of the complex and sensitive issues, rhetorical strategies, and network of sources of this denialism. Over 50 sources were directly coded to capture rich, nuanced insights that serve to provide an emergent picture of this growing concern within Canada’s social and information ecosystem. These sources included a small but growing group of websites and self-published works, often citing one another in a kind of circular way, comprising news platforms and self-published websites such as The National Post, True North, Rebel News, Indian Residential Schools Research Group, C2C Journal, and Woke Academy. Also, the social media platform Reddit, and communities therein, r/Canada and r/Catholicism, were scanned and provided evidence of denialism manifesting in less formally published forums.

A post qualitative approach was undertaken for the project, which enabled the researchers to follow a path of learning led by the sources themselves towards areas of knowledge that a more rigidly fixed approach might have precluded. Out of this journey came emerging themes, patterns, and perspectives which the researchers organized into a codebook to guide an interpretive analysis of findings.

Below is a listing and description of the thematic codes themselves, the associated number of quotes affiliated with the respective codes, and some accompanying illustrative examples. Several phrases that were coded were associated with multiple codes, representing the often entangled and layered web of rhetorical strategies used.

 

Key Rhetorical Strategies Used - Findings

 

Epistemic Injustice/36

Who holds power? And who tells the truth? Who defines what is valid and what questions needs more proof? Epistemic injustice refers to a rhetorical strategy of exclusion, delegitimization, and devaluation of marginalized voices in knowledge production, rooted in colonial and white supremacist structures. In the context of residential school denialism, this manifests through the dismissal of Indigenous testimonies and oral histories as "anecdotal" or "unscientific," while privileging colonial records and Western standards of evidence. Deniers often demand additional proof, reject findings like ground-penetrating radar investigations as "inconclusive," and perpetuate an oppressor’s narrative by moving the goalposts of what constitutes valid evidence.

Examples:

1. “Proof positive? According to Star Blanket Band search leader Sheldon Poitras (top), a fragment of a child’s jawbone (bottom left) found in the area constitutes “physical proof of an unmarked grave”. Poitras extended thanks to local gophers (bottom right) for facilitating the discovery. (Sources of photos: (top) Alexander Quon/CBC; (bottom left) CBC)” (Rubenstein, 2024).
2. “quantify it like sensible researchers instead of ..” “Why are they just estimates though? Let's get some shovels in the ground and get some answers”; “At Kamloops for example, the field where these "bodies" are supposedly located was essentially used as farmland for like 70+ years with dozens of irrigation ditches, sewage trenches, rows of crops, orchard trees etc dug up, filled in etc. creating many underground "anomalies" not to mention the entire field was partially on top of a known ancient shellmound and village, creating even more, ancient anomalies” (Reddit, r/Canada).

 

Positive Framing / 16

This rhetorical strategy involves denialists emphasizing the "positive" aspects of residential schools while disregarding the broader context of cultural genocide, systemic abuse, and intergenerational trauma. Statements that acknowledge instances of abuse but pivot to highlight perceived benefits—such as "good things happened," "it was well-intentioned," or "students learned useful skills"—are coded under positive framing. This approach often avoids framing residential schools as part of a systematic genocide, instead portraying them as well-intentioned or even beneficial institutions.

Examples:

1. “Good deeds” provided by “well-intentioned” individuals (Senate of Canada [SOC], 2017, cited in Howell & Ng-A-Fook, 2022).
2. “The system was not without its accomplishments. Human connections were made. Doors were opened, and opportunities were created. People applied themselves, overcame tremendous barriers, and developed skills they were able to draw upon for the rest of their lives” (Rubenstein, 2024).

 

Conspiracy/ 21

In our analysis, we identified numerous instances of claims that explicitly or implicitly portrayed residential school narratives as deceptive. Forms of denialism that were coded as conspiracy included charges of false media narratives, as misinformation propagated by the media, narratives that overemphasized or fabricated evidence, or that questioned survivor testimonies. Also coded under this category were examples of discourse in which denialists engaged in a specific narrative that questioned a framing of truth and reconciliation as a political and/or media elite propagandist message.

Examples:

1. “It was a weird time during the pandemic. People were bored and scared. They felt out of control and needed a reason to be angry at the system. The anti-lockdown people found one, obviously. The other side of the spectrum, which aligns quite nicely with the liberal government, needed a cause just like the "anti-black systematic racism" in the US. There had to be a Canadian version of it. So when that story came out, many felt vindicated, accepted it at face value and proceeded to "rebel against the system" in their own pathetic ways. The truth is, everyone sees themselves as a rebellious main character in their own lives, and the story gave them a chance to play that role” (Reddit R/Canada).
2. “Honestly, it's because the media always presented it to us all as though it was a proven thing. Over and over again. Our governments (municipal, provincial, and federal), too, made it seem real by lowering flags for half of the year” (Reddit R/Canada).

 

Normalization/19

This denialism strategy involves claims that justify the systematic abuse and cultural genocide of residential schools as normal or common occurrences for the time. These narratives often argue that the abuses were not unique to the colonizer/colonized relationship, and, further, frame the harms as inevitable due to external factors, such as pandemics, tuberculosis, or the weak immune systems of members of Indigenous communities.

Some claims go further, asserting that mistreatment and abuse were expected in educational systems of the era. Influenced by this strategy, denialists frequently compare the instances of residential schools’ physical and cultural harms and death to instances of death, child abuse, and sexual harassment in other contexts, as if such comparisons normalize or diminish the abuses. In doing so, denialists normalize the harms by disregarding the specific historical and systemic truths behind residential schools.

Examples:

1. “There are unmarked graves everywhere” (Reddit/ r/Canada).
2. “You know that in the 1800s, it was very common for children to die of natural causes, you know that's why they had so many kids right because they knew some wouldn't survive. You know these schools were located on remote areas right? You know it took much longer to send resources, medical supplies, food and clothes etc to them, on top of government bureaucracy to approve shipments” (Reddit/ r/Canada).

 

Appeal to authority/8

The "Appeal to Authority" logical fallacy occurs when figures or institutions historically linked to oppression are cited to validate denialist claims about residential schools. By invoking these sources as credible, denialists attempt to dismiss survivor testimonies, historical records, and Indigenous knowledge. In the examples below, the statements direct readers to the Indian Residential School Research Group (irsrg.ca), an organization with right of centre political associations known for promoting anti-Indigenous denialist narratives, and to “just” Catholic Church practices. Both examples serve to deny truth, dismiss survivor testimonies, and undermine established historical research while crediting the oppressors' narrative as evidence.

Example:

1. "For anyone who wants to start a more informed journey, here [Indian Residential School Research Group] is a good start accounting for common misconceptions about Residential Schools" (r/Canada).

 

Deflection/68

This rhetorical strategy subtly deflects attention away from the systemic design of residential schools, genocide, and cultural assimilation. Commenters distract from the existing evidence of genocide, survivor testimonies, and overwhelming historical facts, and employ deflection by demanding further proof—such as the exhumation of bodies—using false comparisons, or changing the focus of the conversation entirely. This tactic prevents meaningful engagement with the truth and undermines reconciliation efforts.

Examples:

1. “And sure people can scoff at religion and say the church deserved it but if you flipped it and burned mosques or native sites they would be furious.  Jewish synagogues would probably be fine to torch these days given the open hate messages and threats that folks aren't even attempting to be coy with.  What a topsy turvy world” (Reddit, R/Canada).
2. “There is evidence of cemeteries that have been forgotten - especially in remote locations with closed down schools. A believable narrative is that kids died, mainly due to disease, were buried with a wooden cross. Over time, the wooden crosses decompose or are overgrown” (Reddit/ R/Canada).
3. "The provenance of ex situ bones – objects found away from their original site and the valuable context this provides – should always be treated with caution. A bone fragment could have been dug up where it was found or it could have been carried there from elsewhere" (Rubenstein & Flanagan, 2023).

 

Victim Blaming/8

Victim blaming occurs when the responsibility for harm is shifted from the oppressor—in this case, the Canadian genocidal system and its institutions—to the Indigenous community itself. This tactic manifests through questions and accusations that place undue burden on survivors and their families, such as: Why did they attend residential schools? Why didn’t they report deaths or abuses earlier? These questions ignore the systemic coercion, violence, and power imbalances that forced Indigenous children into these institutions and silenced survivors for decades. By focusing on the actions (or perceived inactions) of the victims, rather than the crimes of the perpetrators, victim blaming perpetuates colonial narratives, minimizes the severity of the atrocities, and further traumatizes Indigenous communities. It is a deliberate strategy to deflect accountability and maintain the structures of oppression that enabled the residential school system to operate.

Examples:

1. “There are no “missing children”, though some may have been forgotten by their relatives” (Flanagan, 2024).
2. “Most of these witnesses attended an Indian Residential School during a period when students were enrolled mainly for reasons of social welfare, namely after 1960, and hence were likely to have entered them having already suffered physical, emotional and psychological damage. Nevertheless, their stories were accepted without question as truthful” (Rubenstein, 2024).

 

Stereotyping/20

Stereotyping involves reducing Indigenous cultures to oversimplified, often negative, and inaccurate generalizations. Stereotypical statements often portray Indigenous children as coming from dysfunctional families or backgrounds of alcoholism and drug abuse. This strategy perpetuates harmful colonial narratives that devalue Indigenous ways of life, ignore the complexity and richness of their cultures, and justify systemic oppression. Such stereotypes reinforce racist ideologies, erase historical and ongoing injustices, and shift blame onto Indigenous communities for the consequences of colonization rather than holding oppressive systems accountable.

Examples:

1. “Many students were likely sent to these boarding schools to escape sexual predation at home, abuse that was reportedly rampant on many Indian Reserves, and included the heinous crime of incest” (Rubenstein, 2024).
2. “Where would they be today if it were not for the residential school that were set up to help them? I expect they would still be living out in their isolated villages, uneducated, a very high rate of child birth deaths, a very short life expectancy, and living in very damp cold dwellings” (Tasker, 2018 as cited in Howell & Ng-A-Fook, 2022, p. 9).

3. “prolong narritive > get more money >> prolong narritive >>> get more money >>>> prolong narritive >>>>> get more money” (Reddit, R/Canada).

 

Minimization/30

This rhetorical strategy involves acknowledging a harmful or problematic event but minimizing its significance, severity, or intent. The speaker may admit to certain facts (e.g., deaths, chaotic conditions) but frames them as less severe, less intentional, or less morally troubling than other associated claims (e.g., "clandestine burials"). This downplays the broader implications of the event, reducing the perceived responsibility or accountability for the harm. In the context of denialism, it serves to undermine or weaken the urgency and seriousness of the issue being discussed.

Examples:

1. “'the significant educational, income, health, and social disparities between aboriginal people and other Canadians' — have been found to be no greater among those who attended Indian Residential Schools than among those who did not" (Rubenstein & Flanagan, 2023).

2. “some likely did get buried”, “To propose that it was 'mass graves' without having anything dug up from common cemetery places was absurd. Sure some kids likely died” (Reddit, r/Canada).

3. “Nobody disputes that children died and that the conditions were sometimes chaotic. But that’s quite different from clandestine burials” –Tom Flanagan (quoted in Morrisseau).

 

Misleading Use of Statistics/8

This code refers to the deliberate manipulation or selective use of statistics to downplay, justify, or normalize systemic violence and genocide. By privileging quantitative data over qualitative evidence—such as survivor testimonies, oral histories, and cultural knowledge—deniers create a false sense of objectivity. They often use statistics to argue that deaths or abuses were "natural" (e.g., due to disease) or "coincidental" (e.g., aligning with infrastructure records), while ignoring the broader context of colonial policies, neglect, and intentional harm. This tactic not only erases the lived experiences of victims but also reinforces colonial narratives by framing genocide as an inevitable or exaggerated outcome, rather than a deliberate and systematic crime.

Examples:

1. “In the case of the 215 "bodies" found at Kamloops, almost every single one of them lined up perfectly with KNOWN sewer trenches, water mains, former roads, orchards, gardens, known archaeological dig sites, and various other things that we have KNOWN, meticulous records of, that would explain exactly why there would be anomalous disturbances in the soil, in the specific areas where the GPR detected anomalous disturbances in the soil. Since the 1980s, over 100,000 square feet, more 30% of the total Kamloops GPR site has been excavated for various reasons relating to infrastructure improvement and archaeology, and not a single grave has EVER been found” (Reddit, r/canada).
2. “Looking at the Canadian government report (volume four, around page 23), all of the recorded death rises can be attributable to disease, particularly tuberculosis. One year the schools will have 10x as many deaths than the previous year. This is not because of abuse, but because of disease. Tuberculosis and other diseases have always been huge problems for Native Americans because they are genetically susceptible to these deaths compared to Europeans” (Reddit/ r/Catholicism).

 

Skepticism/29

Skepticism refers to statements that appear to logically and critically question the facts of residential schools, but are utilized to infuse doubt and uncertainty. Deniers use this strategy to devalue the truth by framing their skepticism as reasonable inquiry, while subtly rejecting or minimizing the evidence.

Examples:

1. “The way it was reported I assumed they had found bones until recently” (Reddit, r/Canada).
2. “BC subreddit pulled this article link for being offensive.  They really can't deal with the fact were initially misstated at best, intentionally misled at worst” (Reddit, r/Canada).

 

Misinformation

Misinformation includes sharing false or misleading claims that distort the truth about residential schools. This can include denying the existence of unmarked graves, misrepresenting ground-penetrating radar (GPR) findings, or ascribing an intentionally malignant narrative by the media. By presenting inaccurate or incomplete information as fact, deniers sow confusion, undermine credible evidence, and perpetuate harmful narratives that erase the realities of cultural genocide and systemic violence. Misinformation often relies on rhetorical strategies like skepticism or appeals to authority, making it appear plausible while diverting attention from the truth.

Examples:

1. “These aren’t even abandoned graveyards... they're literally just old filled-in irrigation/crop trenches, sewer systems, old tree stumps etc...” (Reddit, r/Canada).
2. “It just seemed beyond belief they were mass burying kids with no markers or ceremony. its because they werent! the vast vast majority of the "anomalies" detected by GPR werent just simply old, abandoned but legitimately buried bodies in cemeteries that are now missing headmarkers.... they arent bodies at all!!” (Reddit, r/Canada).
3. “The media is committing an egregious act of slander against Catholics. They are blood libeling you and insinuating that you committed genocide” (Reddit, r/Catholicism).

 

Tokenism/Performative Allyship /2

Code instances where individuals rely on superficial or symbolic connections to marginalized groups to claim credibility or innocence. The statement acknowledges a superficial connection to Indigenous peoples ("my best friend has a friend who is First Nations, Inuit, and/or Métis") as a means of self-identifying as an ally without deeper engagement or action and a strategy to deny the residential school harms.

Examples:

1. “Yes, my best friend has a friend who is First  Nations, Inuit, and/or Métis. I am thus an ally, despite my proximity to settler colonial  Whiteness and its respective inclusive economic privileges. Such kinds of superficial  relational acknowledgements is my colonial defence, and provides an example of what  Wark (2021) describes as another settler move toward innocence” (Howell & Ng-A-Fook, 2022. P.11).
2. “History Reclaimed, an independent group of scholars with a wide range of opinions on many subjects, has recently published a very moving testimonial from someone whose family was intimately connected with the education and welfare of Indigenous children over several decades” (Rubenstein & Flanagan, 2023).

 

 

References

Flanagan, T. (2024, May 6). Canada’s Most Dangerous Book: How Quesnel, B.C. Went Crazy Over a Local Woman’s Reading Choices. IRSRG. https://irsrg.ca/articles/canadas-most-dangerous-book-how-quesnel-b-c-went-crazy-over-a-local-womans-reading-choices/

Howell, L., & Ng-A-Fook, N. (2022). A Case of Senator Lynn Beyak and Anti-Indigenous Systemic Racism in Canada. Canadian Journal of Education/Revue Canadienne de l’éducation, 45(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.53967/cje-rce.v45i1.4787

Morrisseau, M. (2024, September 27). Canada continues to face residential school denialism. ICT News. https://ictnews.org/news/canada-continues-to-face-residential-school-denialism

Piasetzki, G. (2024, April 8). Canada wanted to close all residential schools in the 1940s. Here’s why it couldn’t. IRSRG. https://irsrg.ca/articles/canada-wanted-to-close-all-residential-schools-in-the-1940s-heres-why-it-couldnt/

r/Canada. Reddit community. https://www.reddit.com/r/canada/

r/Catholicism. Reddit community. https://www.reddit.com/r/Catholicism/  

Rubenstein, H. (2024, April 30). Reclaiming the History of Canada’s Indigenous Population. IRSRG. https://irsrg.ca/articles/reclaiming-the-history-of-canadas-indigenous-population/

Rubenstein, H., & Flanagan, T. (2023, February 28). Jawbones, Gophers and Tainted Milk: What Do We Really Know About Missing Children at Canada’s Residential Schools? C2C Journal. https://c2cjournal.ca/2023/02/jawbones-gophers-and-tainted-milk-what-do-we-really-know-about-missing-children-at-canadas-residential-schools/